EQOL Journal (2016) 8(2): 3-8

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Socio-economic characteristics of families and physical activity of

children

Zoran Milosevic¹• Nebojsa Maksimovic¹ • Ivana Milovanovic¹ • Radenko Matic¹✉•

Damjan Jaksic¹• Jovan Vukovic¹

Abstract

Keywords Socio-economic characteristics

•

Children • Family • Physical activity

This study presents the results of empirical research

conducted with the aim of analyzing differences in

the physical activity of children in relation to the

Introduction

socio-economic characteristics of their families. The

research was conducted by applying a questionnaire

Socio-economic characteristics, and the inequalities

distributed to pupils aged 11-12 years, who live in

within them, are among the current topics in

the city of Novi Sad (the city and the village of

academic research focused on the development of

Rumenka, Veternik, Kac, Bukovac, Futog). Bearing

children and youth

(Mollborn, Lawrence, James-

in mind that the work is a part of a broader research,

Hawkins, & Fomby, 2013). The social sciences

the authors' attention was focused on the objective,

continuously conduct research aimed at discovering

and the evaluation of the respondents on the socio-

as clear indicators of genetically inherited and even

economic status of the family, as well as differences

more intensely socially conditioned factors as

in physical activity among boys and girls, and

possible, that affect the overall cognitive, socio-

children who live in urban or rural setting. As

emotional and physical development of the youngest

dominant in this study stands out the finding of the

part of the population. In this regard, this study

author that the socioeconomic characteristics of

presents an empirical annex to the mentioned set of

families significantly affect the intensity, form and

research, given the focus of authors' attention on the

quality of physical activity of children. Since such a

relation of some socio-economic characteristics of

finding puts children living in families with low

the family and physical activity of schoolchildren in

socioeconomic status into a disadvantaged position,

the city of Novi Sad.

the authors believe that with the findings of this and

compatible researches it is needed to familiarize

Insight into the published academic papers

indicates the actuality of topics and diversity of

with the wider academic community, in order to

directions in which the authors perceive the issue of

include other social institutions in the process of

affirmation of physical activity as an important

physical activity of children and more concrete

relation of socio-economic status of families on one

lifestyle quality in children and youth.

hand and anthropometric features, motor behavior

and intellectual ability on the other. In these studies

(Strauss, Rodzilsky, Burack, & Colin,

2001;

Scheerder, Vanreusel, Taks, & Renson,

2005;

Brodersen, Steptoe, Boniface, & Wardle,

2007;

Maksimovic, Matic, & Obradovic,

2009; Matic,

✉ radenkomatic@uns.ac.rs

Kuljic, & Maksimovic,

2010; De Cocker et al.,

2012; Klein, Fröhlich, Pieter, & Emrich,

2016),

University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sport and

among other things, we find some key factors that

Physical Education

can influence the physical activity of children. It is

EQOL Journal (2016) 8(2): 3-8

the individual factors, family

(that is appropriate

Method

family support), peers

(adequate support), school

(education), local community (low or high economic

The sample of respondents in the research included

status).

467 boys and 464 girls (N=931) aged 11-12 years

The family as the basic social community, and

(5th grade pupils of primary schools), of which

the nearest environment in which children develop is

48.5% of respondents come from villages

crucial for the overall development of children, and

(Rumenka, Veternik, Kac , Bukovac, Futog) and

therefore the results in the field of physical activity

51.5% from the city of Novi Sad.

(Mayer, 2002; Giulianotti 2008). As children often

Evaluation of physical activity entailed the scale

learn by observing the behavior of people in their

format from 0 to 7, depending on the frequency of

immediate environment, not surprising are the

the respondent's doing of varying intensity of

observations that the children of parents who have

physical activity on a weekly basis

(walking,

already achieved results in sport are themselves

moderate

(not walking) and intense physical

physically active and successful in this area

activity).

(Giulianotti, 2008). Contrary to such families, there

are also those where a parent due to various reasons,

Socio-economic characteristics were evaluated

is not pointed to the importance of practicing

based on the issues related to one aspect of socio-

physical activity, resulting in a gradual loss of

economic status, that is the economic well-being of

families, which indirectly reflects families' income.

children's interest in sport

(Matic, Kuljic, &

Maksimovic, 2010).

This segment of the research included the following

questions:

“Does your family own a car or a

Peer influence is also important, and in

van?”, 2) “Do you have your own room?” 3) “How

adolescence certainly primary for general

many computers are in possession of your family?”

development, including physical activity of children

4) “How many bathrooms do you have at home?” 5)

(Rowland, 1999; Sallis, Prochaska, & Taylor, 2000).

“Does your family own a dishwasher?” and 6) “How

Finally, institutional support through activities at

many times did you and your family travel on

school or at the level of clubs in local governments

vacation outside of Serbia last year?” Summarizing

is the last round of incentives of children to physical

the obtained results, all respondents were classified

activity by the wider community. However, recently,

into 3 formed categories of socioeconomic status:

among these factors socioeconomic status of the

low (0-4), intermediate (5-9) and high (10 and over).

family has clearly separated as dominant. In the

These results were supplemented by respondents'

Serbian society, the reason for such situation is the

own assessment of families' wealth. Question

general pauperization of the population, decades-

implied a scale of responses: 0-no, 1-yes, 1 vehicle,

long influence of which is visible in all areas of

2-yes, two or more vehicles. Questions

2 and 5

social life. As physical activity is not among the

presented dichotomous variables (0-no, 1-yes), while

existential human needs, we can assume that in

questions 3, 4 and 6 implied the scale format with

families of lower socioeconomic status from the

the following answers: 1) none, 2) one, 3) two, or 4)

perspective of parents, it does not occupy the

more than two.

primary place. On the other hand, the measures

taken by parents directly affect the intensity and

The statistical data analysis of differences among

quality of physical activity, and long term general

the respondents belonging to different categories of

psycho-physical development of children.

socioeconomic status used Kruskal-Wallis and Man-

Whitney tests.

With this in mind, our attention in this study is

focused on the socio-economic context as a factor of

influence on physical activity of schoolchildren in

Results and Discussion

the city of Novi Sad and the surrounding places.

More specifically, the aim of the research is to

The descriptive statistics in Table

1 show the

analyze the differences in the physical activity of

following representation of respondents defined by

children in relation to the socio-economic

socio-economic categories: middle

(65.2%), high

characteristics of their families.

(24.6%), and low (10.2%) socio-economic status.

EQOL Journal (2016) 8(2): 3-8

Table 1. Socio-economic characteristics of respondents

Variable

Socio-economic category

Low status

10.2

Middle status

601

65.2

High status

227

24.6

How well-off/wealthy is the

family?

Not at all

0.3

Not really

4.8

Average

411

43.8

Really

323

34.4

Very

156

16.6

Weekly physical activity

Walking

Moderate physical Intensive physical

(freq.)

(% of N)

activity (% of N)

0.1

0.3

1.2

2.2

2.8

3.7

3.1

13.7

15.1

3.6

31.2

41.0

4.5

12.4

15.9

19.5

15.0

12.8

8.6

6.8

4.6

58.5

17.8

5.6

However, it is interesting that the estimation of

The presented results suggest that gender differences in

wealth of the family of the respondents showed

doing intensive forms of physical activity are in favor

slightly different results: the low status

(5.1%

of the boys. These results correspond to the results of

answers - not at all and not really), middle (43.8%,

previously completed studies

(Alexandre, Obert,

answer - average) and high (51%, answers - really,

Bonnet, & Courteix, 2003; Djordjic, 2006; Djordjic &

very), which indicates that respondents consider the

Krneta, 2007; Djordjic & Matic, 2008), which indicate

socio-economic status of their families to a certain

the increased willingness of parents of preschool and

extent higher than it is objectively observed

early-school ages to encourage children to engage in

according to the socio-economic parameters. This

physical activity. There is also more intense

result can be attributed to the comparison of the

stimulation of boys than girls to engage in physical

socio-economic status of their families with the

activity, which is an important indicator of cultural and

families of children from the immediate

gender-stereotyped perception of doing sports

environment, which is a logical aspect of this kind of

activities. Earlier research carried out on a sample of

evaluation in the age category of the respondents.

children of higher primary school grades show

themselves that boys and girls differently assess sport

The next step was a comparative statistical

and their own competencies in sport

(Djordjic &

analysis of the data, which was started by analyzing

Krneta,

2007). The result of the aforementioned

the differences in the levels of physical activity in

gender-stereotyping suggests that girls attach to sport

relation to gender, and is presented in Table 2.

some masculine traits. Djordjic and Matic

(2008)

Table 2. Analysis of the differences in the levels of physical

pointed out that “boys feel more competent in sports,

activity by gender of the respondents

prefer competition and physical challenge more than

girls, and that they do sports in clubs to a significantly

Mean Rank

Variable

greater extent than girls. Finally, they note the

Boys

Girls

significantly lower number of female sporting role

Walking

445.08

462.98

models”. As the results of this study correspond with

Moderate physical activity

448.52

452.51

the results of research already completed, it can be seen

Intensive physical activity

388.40**

338.81

as an indicator of insufficient engagement of parents,

** < 0.01 - Man-Whitney test

teachers and children themselves in the meantime.

EQOL Journal (2016) 8(2): 3-8

The obtained results of the difference analysis of characteristics are shown in Table 3.

respondents in relation to their socio-economic

Table 3. Differences in respondents by socio-economic characteristics

socio-economic characteristics

Mean Rank

χ²

1 - low, 2 - middle i 3 - high status

Walking

415.72

442.47

481.70^1b2b

6.81*

Moderate physical activity

450.33

429.90

486.01^2a

8.04*

Intensive physical activity

342.52

337.93

425.91^1a2a

26.68**

* 0.05, ** < 0,01 - Kruskal Wallis test

1,2,3

subsamples, ^a < 0.01, ^b < 0.05 - Man Whitney test

Based on the obtained results, it can be concluded

Table 4. Analysis of difference in physical activity of

that statistically significant differences in all variables

respondents by place of residence

of physical activity in respondents of different socio-

Mean Rank

economic characteristics are in favor of children whose

Variable

Village

City

families belong to the highest category of socio-

Walking

471.21

445.38

economic status, while the respondents whose families

Moderate physical activity

485.03**

424.64

belong to low and middle status reported no

Intensive physical activity

357.60

376.97

statistically significant differences. These results

** < 0.01 - Man Whitney test

correspond to the factors of influence on physical

According to the results from Table 4, it can be

activity in children, which were mentioned in the first

concluded that moderate physical activity in the

part of the study. On one hand it can be assumed that

respondents from rural areas were statistically

the parents of children who are now more physically

significantly more active than the population of

active turned their attention to a significant extent to

children in the city. These results were expected,

that part of the everyday of their children in the

considering that the village as a socio-cultural context,

preschool and early school age, and thus further

due to the absence of large, busy streets and modern

developed the working habit in children who are now

children gives more freedom to spend time in

physically active independently, without the support of

organized or spontaneous activities outside the house.

the adults. In less active children, it can be assumed

This is not the case in the city, where the children's

that the parents due to the low socio-economic status of

everyday life from an early age is conditioned by

the family did not have the conditions, nor considered a

circumstances of parents to spend time together or take

priority at the stage of primary socialization of their

children to organized sports trainings. On the other

children to point to physical activity as part of a future

hand, the range of activities that the city offers is

lifestyle. Finally, it can be assumed that some of the

significantly wider than in the village, which is why,

children at the stage of adolescence distance

beside sports and music schools, children often attend a

themselves from physical activities, diverting their

school of foreign language, mathematics, art, go to the

resources to develop other talents or skills, which can

cinema and theater. Thus, physical activity becomes an

be encountered in literature (see: Rowland 1999). The

option for urban, and one of the dominant in rural

need of adolescents to conform, due to peer pressure,

environment. Generally, the village and the city as a

except in cases where doing sport has become an

socio-cultural

frameworks

provide

different

important part of the lifestyle of the child, in everyday

opportunities for development, which is reflected in the

life, will distance children rather than make them

manner of growing up and life style of children.

closer to physical activity.

Physical activity is one of the indicators of these

Further statistical analysis determined to what

manifest differences.

extent the respondents' place of residence differs the

If the results of our study should be summarized in

respondents from the aspect of physical activity (Table

one sentence, it would read:

“socio-economic

4).

characteristics of families significantly affect the

intensity, form and quality of physical activity of

children”. Such a conclusion is compatible with the

results of previously published studies

(La Torre,

Masala, De Vito, Arzano, Fargione, & Capelli, 2003;

EQOL Journal (2016) 8(2): 3-8

Maksimovic & Matic, 2006; Matic & Jaksic, 2007;

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EQOL Journal (2016) 8(2): 9-14

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Differences in motor abilities of boys and girls aged 7 in relation to the

level of intellectual ability

Filip Sadri¹✉• Milica Blagojevic¹ • Ivo Sadri¹

Abstract

physical abilities is associated with improvement of

Since previous studies suggest a relationship

brain tissue during aging, while also the functional

between motor and cognitive development in

aspects of a higher order, which are involved in the

children, a research was conducted in order to

control of cognition are improved (Gomez-Pinilla &

examine the differences in motor skills of children

Hillman,

2013). Cognitive behavioral model

with different levels of intellectual ability. In a

emphasizes the role of cognitive functioning that

sample of 88 respondents, boys and girls aged 7, an

contributes to the emergence of emotional and

assessment of motor skills was performed by using

behavioral disorders. Incorrect assessment of social

the battery of seven motor tests and assessment of

situations, the tendency self-underestimation,

intellectual abilities by using the test of Raven's

unreasonable sense of guilt for errors, are examples

Coloured Progressive Matrices. Respondents were

of dysfunctional cognitive processes. Cognitive

divided into three groups according to the results of

abilities are responsible for forecasting, planning,

the test. After analyzing the results of the research it

decision-making processes, as well as comparisons

was shown that there were no statistically significant

and information processing along with the use of

differences in the area of motor abilities of children

long-term memory in resolving problem situations.

of different intellectual levels, but there were

Motor skills play a key role in the functioning of

differences at the univariate level regarding the tests

the child regarding the social and emotional area

Hand Tapping and Seat-and-Reach.

(domain). Weaker motor coordination in children

can affect their feelings that they are less able than

Keywords Raven's Coloured Progressive Matrices •

their peers, but also affects their academic

Motor skills • Intelligence • Younger school age

achievements, and even the choice of recreational

activities. The relationship between motor skills and

social and emotional functioning is usually

Introduction

considered indirect. In other words, poor motor

skills can lead to poor achievements in individual

Current theoretical approaches and empirical

and team sports, which can reduce the feeling of

findings from the research conducted over the last

competence in children and increase their anxiety

decade indicate that physical activity may contribute

and depression (Cummins et al., 2005). Children

to the improvement and preservation of cognitive

with poor motor coordination are less competent in

abilities during the human life. Improvement of

their ability to recognize emotions. Study by

Cummins and associates (2005) found that children

with motor coordination problems are less accurate

(correct) and slower in reacting to facial emotional

✉

filip_so@yahoo.com

signs. Children with coordination disorder may be at

a disadvantage during the social process with their

peers, as they may have more difficulties in

University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sport and

Physical Education

detecting emotional states of others and in use of this

EQOL Journal (2016) 8(2): 9-14

information for their behavior in the social

V. Stojanović i M. Stojanović, 2006; M. Stojanović,

environment.

Rubin, M. V. Stojanović & Fratrić,

2006). The

motor testing of children systematically uses

Sport and physical activity are positively

appropriate measuring instruments, or tests, in order

correlated with children's physical and mental health

to quantify motor behavior. Differences in motor

(Strong et al.,

2005). However, the increased

behavior are attributed to differences in

participation of children in sport and other forms of

coordination, explosive strength, speed of alternative

physical activity also leads to improved cognitive

movements, balance and flexibility, exogenous

functioning of children, better information

factors, as well as the functioning of the CNS during

processing, development of memory, concentration,

the manifestation of certain abilities in motor

behavior. There is sufficient evidence on the

behavior. Even less mentally disabled persons are

relationship between physical activity and

significantly inferior in motor skills compared to the

improvement of cognitive skills and executive

standard population, where the level of motor

functioning and control. Executive functioning

behavior in less mentally disabled person falls

refers to the cognitive processes needed for target

behind

3-4 years compared to the standard

oriented cognition and behaviors that develop

population of the same age

(Nićin,

2000). The

through childhood and adolescence

(Best,

2010;

connection between intellectual and motor

Hillman, Erickson, & Kramer,

2008; Hillman,

functioning was first detected and confirmed in

Pontifex, Raine, Castelli, Hall, & Kramer,

2009;

samples of persons who are mentally disabled (Bala,

Kamijo et al.,

2011). Most motor tasks require

Sabo, & Popović, 2005). Bearing in mind the results

precisely those processes, and many of them contain

of previous research, a research was conducted in

problematic component, for example, numerous

order to examine the differences in motor skills of

situations in the sports game, creating their own

children aged 7 depending on the level of cognitive

solutions to overcome the track with obstacles, etc.

ability.

The motor coordination tests also consist of a kind

of problem situations that need to be addressed

effectively (Dolenc, Pistotnik, & Pinter, 2002). In

Method

addition, individuals who are physically more active

are able to process more information faster. These

Data were collected as part of the research project

data suggest that physical activity may contribute to

the improvement of cognitive skills, allows effective

“Anthropological status and physical activity of the

population of Vojvodina”, Faculty of Sport and

response to a given challenge with good results in

Physical Education in Novi Sad.

carrying out the task. New evidence shows that

physical exercise exerts its effects on cognition, by

The analysis was conducted on a sample of 88

influencing the molecular events related to the

students (43 boys and 45 girls) aged 7, from the

control of energy metabolism and synaptic plasticity,

cities across Vojvodina (Novi Sad, Bačka Palanka,

and their processes (Ang, Tai Lo, Seet, & Soong,

Sombor, Sremska Mitrovica and Zrenjanin) which

2010). An important initiator of the molecular

were included in the testing within the research

mechanism includes physical exercises because the

project “Anthropological status and physical activity

brain (CNS) is a derived neurotrophic factor, which

of the population of Vojvodina”. Testing of motor

acts within the interface between the metabolism and

abilities was performed on the basis of the reduced

plasticity. Recent studies show that exercise along

model designed by Kurelić et al.

(1975) with

with other aspects of lifestyle affects the molecular

motor tests.

basis of cognition (Baker, et al., 2010; Berchtold,

Motor tests that were applied in this study were:

Chinn, Chou, Kesslak, & Cotman, 2010; Gomez-

1) Obstacle course backwards test - coordination of

Pinilla & Hillman, 2013; Kamijo & Takeda, 2009).

body and reorganization of movement stereotypes;

In addition, selected dietary factors have similar

2) Hand tapping test - movement frequency; 3) Sit-

mechanisms as exercises and, in some cases, can

and-reach test - flexibility; 4) Standing broad jump

complement the effect of exercise. So, exercise and

test - explosive leg strength; 5) 20 meters run test -

diet are non-invasive and effective strategies of

running speed;

6) Trunk lifting test

- repetitive

combating neurological and cognitive disorders.

strength of the trunk and 7) Bent arm hang test -

In many studies the relations were found between

static strength of arms and shoulders.

mobility and intelligence

(Dolenc, Pistotnik, &

Pinter, 2002; Hariri et al., 2003; Planinšec, 2002; M.

EQOL Journal (2016) 8(2): 9-14

To test the intelligence the Raven's Coloured

Results

Progressive Matrices were used (Fajgelj, Bala, &

Tubić,

2007). Raven's Coloured Progressive

The results of testing by using the multivariate

Matrices are one of the most commonly-used tests

analysis of variance showed that at the level of the

for testing the intelligence of preschool and young

whole system of motor variables, there was no

school-age children in our country. Based on the

statistically

significant

differences

between

results achieved by the respondents during the test,

respondents with different levels of intellectual

they were divided into three groups: the first group

abilities

(F = 1.446; P = .138). However, at the

consisted of respondents whose result was located

univariate level, statistically significant differences

within the first quarter, the second group consisted

were obtained in two of the seven motor variables:

of respondents who achieved results in the second

Hand tapping and Sit-and-reach (Table 1). From the

and third quarters, and in the third group were

table we can conclude that the second group

classified respondents with the best results

(the

(AVERAGE) achieved the best average values

fourth quarter). The first group contained

regarding the variable Hand tapping, while the third

respondents (from 55 to 81 of IQ), the second group

group achieved the best results regarding the

was made of 56 respondents (86 to 107 of IQ) and

variable seat-and-reach (ABOVE AVERAGE).

the third group was made of 21 respondents (109 of

IQ and more).To determine the quantitative

differences, univariate and multivariate analysis of

variance were applied.

Table 1. Results of MANOVA, ANOVA, and Post-hoc tests regarding the motor skills in all analyzed groups

Below average (^a)

Average (^b)

Above average (^c)

N=11

N=56

N=21

mean ± SD

20m dash (0,1 s)

48.45 ± 5.126

48.18 ± 6.025

47.71 ± 4.417

.078

.925

Obstacle course backwards (0,1 s)

277.27 ± 140.895

241.04 ± 96.506

264.38 ± 114.381

.739

.481

Hand taping (n/15 s)

16.27 ± 3.690

19.25 ± 3.553a/b

18.19 ± 2.804

3.730

.028

Seat-and-reach (cm)

37.00 ± 8.899

40.77 ± 8.093

45.19 ± 11.321a/c

3.280

.042

Standing broad jump (cm)

121.82 ± 20.841

124.75 ± 21.277

122.90 ± 20.152

.124

.884

Bent arm hang (0,1 s)

155.18 ± 181.770

167.16 ± 120.181

185.48 ± 177.789

.191

.826

Trunk lifting (n/60 s)

28.64 ± 6.265

25.14 ± 10.147

26.52 ± 7.607

.723

.488

F=1.446

P=.138

Legend:

f - univariate f-test; p - significance of f-test; F - multivariate F-test; P - significance of F-test, a/b - significant Post-Hoc tests

(a vs b, if b is bolded means that b is better than a)

In order to identify groups between which there

Discussion

are statistically significant differences in variables

Hand tapping and Seat and reach, LSD - Post Hoc

test was applied (Table 1). Statistically significant

This study was aimed at the investigation of the

differences were noticed between the first and

differences in motor skills of children aged 7, with

second group regarding the HAND TAPPING motor

different levels of intellectual ability.

test. The differences are in favor of the second group

By reviewing the results obtained, we can

(AVERAGE). When it comes to SEAT-AND-

conclude that there is no statistically significant

REACH motor test, statistically significant

difference in the general area ofmotor skills in

differences were observed between the first and the

children with different levels of intelligence. At the

third group, and the difference is in favor of a third

univariate level, however, there is a statistically

group (HIGHER VALUES).

significant difference regarding the two variables:

Hand tapping and Sit-and-reach. Most authors agree

with the fact that there are general mechanisms that

are responsible for the speed of information flow,

EQOL Journal (2016) 8(2): 9-14

and that the tasks with measuring the information

activities, and this relationship lasts a lifetime.

flow rate, even the easiest ones, are significantly

Acquisition of intellectual and motor abilities takes

positively correlated with general intelligence factor

place in a very similar way, i.e. similar mechanisms

(Vernon & Mori,

1992). It is concluded that

govern both types of abilities (Paz et al., 2004). In

complex motor tasks have a stronger relationship

addition to its well-established role in balance,

with cognitive abilities, i.e. their performance

coordination and other motor skills, the cerebellum

involves cognitive processes to a greater extent,

plays a prominent role in a number of cognitive and

while the process of performing a simple motor

emotional functions, and is also associated with the

tasks is at the lower, elementary level, where the

ability to learn complex motor tasks (Tiemeierisar.,

share of intellectual processes is minimized.

2010). Cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular

strength and power, and physical activity are

Van der Fels et al. (2015) have obtained different

associated with learning capability, which was

results regarding the relations between the basic

consistent with the hypothesis that physical activity

categories of motor and cognitive abilities, resulting

improves academic achievement. They concluded

in interesting conclusions: fine motor skills, bilateral

that physical activity and physical fitness, at best,

coordination of the body and movement

can contribute to improved academic achievements

performance in a given time interval showed the

(Dwyer et al.,

2001). Cognitive abilities include

strongest correlation with cognitive abilities. Fine

mental processing of information and include

motor skills involve those tasks that require fine

processes such as attention, perception, memory,

motor precision and integration; bilateral

reasoning and problem solving. These obtained

coordination of the body, includes the tasks of

results coincide with some previous research (M. V.

coordination of the whole body and require the

Stojanović & M. Stojanović,

2006). The highest

involvement of almost all body parts and bilateral

partial influence on intelligence was achieved by the

coordination of upper and lower extremities;

variable for assessing the frequency of movements,

movement performance in a given time interval

which is consistent with previous research by local

includes the tasks (coarse/fine motor skills or tasks

authors (M. V. Stojanović et al., 2006), who also

that involve object control) where the time needed

concluded that in preschool children intelligence has

by the child to perform a number of movements is

the greatest impact on the movements frequency

essential, and these tasks are often divided into

(hand tapping), because it is the ability that is under

repetitive movements and sequencing movements.

the direct influence of the mechanism for the

Repetitive movements are simple movements that

synergistic regulation and regulation of tone. In

are repeated as quickly as possible. Sequential

rapid execution of individual movements the

movements include alternating patterns of complex

mechanism of regulation of tone, whose main

movements executed as quickly as possible.

function is the activation of motor units, has a

However, balance, strength and agility are less

special role. In addition, the centers located in

associated with cognitive abilities. This can be

subcortical areas include regulatory mechanisms of

explained by the fact that the first group of motor

different degree of excitation depending on the load,

skills (fine motor skills, bilateral coordination of the

during the performance of the movement (special

body and movement performance in a given time

importance is given to the function of the reticular

interval) requires a higher level of cognitive

formation in the facilitation effect to the cerebrum

demand. Motor skills that show a higher correlation

cortex areas). This assertion is confirmed by

with cognitive abilities can be interpreted as

research by Jakšić, Kolar, & Cvetković (2007) who

complex motor skills and they require cognitive

have obtained results confirming the influence of the

abilities of higher order. Motor tasks that show

intelligence to the motor ability of movement

lower correlation with cognitive abilities require less

frequency (hand tapping) among children aged 5 to

cognitive engagement.

6.5 years.

Children of higher intellectual capacity are better

The results obtained in this study do not coincide

and more effective in solving motor problems and

with the results from the most of the previous

tasks set before them, especially if they are under

studies. This fact can be attributed to the specifics of

significant influence of the mechanism for

both the sample of respondents and measuring

movement structuring and mechanisms for

instruments themselves. The results of study

regulation of excitation intensity

(Fratrić et al.,

(Colquitt et al., 2011) indicate that other indicators

2012). Without the mutual effect of motor and

of physical fitness may predict academic

cognitive abilities it is hard to imagine most human

EQOL Journal (2016) 8(2): 9-14

achievement in students less than 10 years of age, as

preschool children. Kinesiologia Slovenica, 11(1), 5-

flexibility was a significant predictor of both

12.

Berchtold, N. C., Chinn, G., Chou, M., Kesslak, J. P., &

language arts and mathematics achievement. The

Cotman, C. W. (2010). Exercise primes a molecular

evidence of a relationship between flexibility and

memory for brain-derived neurotrophic factor protein

academic achievement in the results also provides

induction in the rat hippocampus. Neuroscience, 133,

support for the role of quality physical education in

853-861.

schools. The results of another study (Adesa et al.,

Best, J. R.

(2010). Effects of physical activity on

2014) showed that there was an improvement of

children’s executive function: Contributions of

push up, trunk lift, nine meter running and sit and

experimental research on aerobic exercise.

reach test for experimental group when it was

Developmental Review, 30(4), 331-351.

compared from pre to post test measurements. The

Colquitt, G., Langdon, J., Hires, T., & Pritchard, T.

control group also improved in some aspects but it

(2011). The relationship between fitness and academic

achievement. Sport Scientific And Practical Aspects,

was not that much. The academic results showed

4(2), 5-13.

that experimental group's academic achievement

Cummins, A., Piek, J. P., & Dyck, M. J. (2005). Motor

were greatly improved from first to second semester.

coordination, empathy, and social behaviour in

But in the control group the mean value of academic

school-aged children. Developmental Medicine and

achievement from first to second semester was

Child Neurology, 47, 437-442.

decreased. The significance results showed that

Dolenc, M., Pistotnik, B., & Pinter, S. (2002). Correlation

experimental group improved academic achievement

Between Coordination and Cognitive Abilities of Girls

due to participation of physical activities.

7-11 Years. In D. Milanović & F. Prot

(Eds.),

Proceedings Book of

3^rd International Scientific

Regular participation in physical activity has a

Conference “Kinesiology New Perspectives“, Opatija,

significant effect on the improvement and

September,

25^th-29^th,

2002.

(pp.105-108) Zagreb:

enhancement of physical fitness performance and

Faculty of Kinesiology.

improve academic achievements. The school

Dwyer, T., Sallis, J. F., Blizzard, L., Lazarus, R., & Dean,

participants, who take part in the regular physical

(2001). Relation of Academic Performance to

activities can improve their physical fitness and

Physical Acivity and Fitness in Children. Pediatric

Exercise Science, 13, 225-237.

academic achievement. Participation in regular

Fajgelj, S., Bala, G. & Tubić, T.

(2007). Ravenove

exercises is very important for school children for

progresivne matrice u boji - osnovna merna svojstva i

overall development.

norme [Raven´s coloured progressive matrices (CPM)

- basic metric characteristics and norms]. Psihologija,

40(2), 293-308.

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EQOL Journal (2016) 8(2): 15-19

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Expert model of the most important methodical exercises for fast

skiing turns teaching

Danijela Kuna¹✉• Sanjin Dzajic²• Marko Mastelic¹

Abstract

basic characteristics of effective lessons. This

The purpose of this research was to establish the

research is a foundation for future modeling which

expert model of learning and evaluation the most

has made a selection of significant errors and

important methodical exercises for teaching short

exercises for their elimination, and their hierarchical

skiing turns in advanced skiing school. Participants

classification.

were 20 skiing experts from different states. After

the experts model was established, experts selected 5

Keywords expert model •ski demonstrators •short

most important methodical exercises for teaching

skiing turns

short skiing turns. According to with the goal of the

research, total frequency sum of expert choice of the

most important methodical exercises has been used

Introduction

(O-observed; E-expected), while the difference

between frequencies of expert evaluation has been

The instruction of alpine skiers is a complex process

tested by non-parametric Chi-square test

(χ²) and

conditioned by numerous endogenous and

statistic meaning of differences

(p). By natural

exogenous factors. Firstly, it depends on the specific

selection, the ranking was made, and selection of the

mountain conditions in which it is performed, level

most important methodical exercises for teaching

skiing

foreknowledge, motivation and

short skiing turns. After data processing, statistical

anthropological status of the subjects. In addition, it

differences were significant in frequencies in which

depends on the quality and the nature of the used

experts choose most important methodical exercises

skiing equipment, but mostly on the level of skiing

(c2=17.30; p=0.14) while the differences between

education, experience and way of teaching used by

the values of most important methodical exercises

skiing experts. Learning and performing specific

were not established (c2=2.15; p=0.91). Statistical

skiing knowledge is a complex process that depends

differences based on nationality were not

on the variable conditions of social environment. It

established. Based on the obtained results it can be

can be defined as the process of systematic adoption

concluded that the experts in spite of the structural

and perfection of specific structure of dynamic

differences and specificity within each ski schools

movement, with the aim of efficient performance in

are equally recognized and valued those most

various conditions and types of ski slopes. All the

important methodical exercises who contain the

mentioned factors are the result of specific divisions

and formations of different skiing school program

models (Feinberg-Densmore, 2000; N. Jurković &

D. Jurković,

2005; John,

2006; Murovec,

2006;

✉ danijela.kuna@gmail.com

Lešnik & Žvan,

2010). The skiing school

programme enables and accelerates the process of

University of Split, Faculty of Kinesiology, Croatia

acquiring skiing knowledge. The basis of the

programme facilitates the adoption of various

High school Konjic, Konjic, Bosnia and

techniques of alpine skiing, and secures the gradual

Herzegovina

progress of skiing learning. In relation to the

EQOL Journal (2016) 8(2): 15-19

mentioned and with the aim of rational performance

The experts performed the multiple extraction of

and lower energy consumption, the skiing elements

methodological exercises variables, in coordination

and methodological exercises should succeed one

with the author of the research, via e-mail. After

another in a logical methodological order. Good

defining and acquiring all the propositions of basic

skiers have high level of specific skiing knowledge,

methodological exercises for fast skiing turns

what is recognised as the ability of successfully

teaching, the expert model of fast skiing turns

performing characteristic skiing elements, as well as

teaching was formed. After that, the task of

conquering different kinds of snow terrains. Thus,

examiners was to choose

5 most important

they require lower levels of energy in order to

methodological exercises for fast skiing turns

perform any of these elements than skiers of lower

teaching, forming an expert model of the most

knowledge level. High quality and professional help

important methodological exercises for fast skiing

of teachers or trainers is the key factor in the process

turns teaching.

of acquiring and perfecting skiing knowledge. In

The sample of variables for fast skiing turns

order to secure adequate teaching, skiing teacher or

teaching consisted of 13 exercises (N=13): OTFT

trainer should have a high level of skiing knowledge

(one turn), PTHFST (parallel turn from hill into fast

and skills, and also understand methodologic and

ski turn), FSTSD (fast ski turn in downhill slope),

didactic principles of training process and the basis

HOHFT (hands on hips), HOTFT (hands on thighs),

of psychological approach of working with people.

AIFT (antenna imitation), ESPFT

(extended ski

Since human being is the subject, there is a great

poles), SPBB

(ski poles behind back), SSPAT

diversity among potential students, regarding the

(switching ski poles around trunk), FTUSB (fast ski

level and degree of anthropological abilities and

turns with unlaced ski boots), SBPUS (stabs of both

characteristics they possess. Therefore, it is very

ski poles under skis), IFTSB (imitation of fast ski

important that skiing experts know and understand

turns in ski boots), FTWJ (fast ski turns with jumps).

the dynamics of learning process of motor, that is,

skiing knowledge, and that they apply the adequate

With the aim of forming the expert model of the

teaching methods. Based on the research results

most important methodological exercises for fast

(Kuna, 2012) that formed the expert model of the

skiing turns teaching, and the testing of the

most important skiing elements of the advanced

difference between the frequencies of expert choice,

skiing school programme, among which fast skiing

the following values were calculated: observed

turns was present, an idea of forming the

frequencies

(OF)

- total sum of expert choice

methodological procedures of their teaching

amount frequency, expected frequencies (EF), non-

occurred. In relation to the mentioned, the following

parametric Hi

- square test

(χ2), and the

research aims were set: a) forming the expert model

corresponding empirical level of significance

(p).

of the most important methodical exercises for fast

With the aim of determining the hierarchical

skiing turns teaching, b) determining the difference

classification of the most important methodological

among skiing experts of different degree of skiing

exercises for fast skiing turns teaching, the following

education.

vales were calculated: range sum (ΣR) of variable

range, Kruskal-Wallis test

(H-test), and the

corresponding empirical level of significance (p).

Method

Results

Elite skiing experts participated in the formation of

the expert model of the most important

methodological exercises for fast skiing turns. They

Based on the obtained values of testing the statistical

were the representatives of Slovenian, Croatian and

significance of differences between the frequencies

Bosnian-Herzegovinian skiing assistants, members

of expert choice of 5 most important methodological

of assistant teams with years-long skiing experience,

exercises for fast skiing turns teaching (c2=17.29;

education and experience in the work with the

p=0.14), it was observed that there was no

Alpine skiers of different levels of skiing

statistically significant difference between the

foreknowledge. Twenty examinees were included in

frequencies of expert choice of 5 most important

the research, of which 7 Croatian, 7 Slovenian and 6

methodological exercises. In other words, the

Bosnian-Herzegovinian state skiing assistants.

formed model of methodological model for fast ski

turns teaching included those exercises with specific

EQOL Journal (2016) 8(2): 15-19

importance and contribution to the teaching alpine

important methodological exercises for fast skiing

skiers, not singling them out on the statistically

turns teaching was formed based on the sum of the

significant level. Model consisting of

5 most total frequency of expert choice.

Table 1. Frequencies of expert choice of 5 most important methodological exercises for fast skiing turns teaching

Methodological exercises of short

skiing turn

OTFT

7.15

PTHFST

7.15

FSTSD

7.15

HOHFT

7.15

HOTFT

7.15

AIFT

7.15

ESPFT

7.15

SPBB

7.15

SSPAT

7.15

FTUSB

7.15

SBPUS

7.15

IFTSB

7.15

FTWJ

7.15

χ2= 17.29 p = 0.14

Legend:

Observed frequencies (OF) - total sum of expert choice amount frequency, expected frequencies (EF), non-parametric Hi -

square test (χ2), and the corresponding empirical level of significance (p)

The FPTHFST (parallel turn from hill into fast

fast turns technique while holding his hands on hips.

ski turn) methodological exercise had the highest

When performing this exercise the skier

level of importance. While performing the exercise

concentrates on the acquisition and harmonisation of

the skier, after performing several parallel turns

characteristic skiing movements that influence the

from the hill, shortens the radius of the turn, and

success of advancing and skis speed control, as well

emphasizes the sideways and axial movement of the

as the harmonious connection between several turns

body with minimal trunk rotation, passing into the

of regular circular shape. The fourth methodological

dynamic skiing technique, performing fast skiing

exercise is the AIFT (antenna imitation) where the

turns. In this way, he gradually adapts to the

skier learns the fast turns technique holding the ski

technical characteristics of the dynamic movement

poles perpendicularly in extension. It is assumed that

structures, characteristic of fast skiing turns. It is

this exercise helps the skier to easily restore the still

assumed that the gradation of acquiring and

upper part of the body, in perpendicular

mastering main characteristics of the fast turns

positionregarding the line of movement. Because of

technique enabled by this methodological exercise

the outstretched arms, the skier achieves and

were the main reason for classifying this exercise

maintains the central position on the skis more

within the model of the most important. The second

easily, developing a sense of regular skis pressure

methodological exercise in this model is the FSTSD

control and coordination of skiing movement, by

(fast ski turns in sloping downhill), where the skier

passing from one turn to another. The fifth

performs fast turns in the slantwise direction

methodological exercise within the expert model of

downhill. This exercise is important because while

the most important ones is the FTWJ (fast turns with

performing fast turns in the slantwise direction

jumps), where the skier, passing from one turn to

downhill, the skier learns how to adjust regular

another, performs a jump. The vertical, circular and

diameters of turns, in relation to the slope degree.

sideways knee movements in turns are especially

Besides this, the performance of one turn in relation

important for their efficient performance. In

to the other is facilitated, due to the slope degree,

comparison with the remaining methodological

enabling better movement speed control and

exercises defined according to the expert model,

developing sense of rhythm and coordination. The

FTWJ is the most complex exercise regarding the

third most important methodological exercise is

coordination, and therefore the skiing teachers

HOHFT (hands on hips), where the skier learns the

EQOL Journal (2016) 8(2): 15-19

should know how to apply it in concordance with the

exist in the actual programmes of Croatian,

possibilities and abilities of the athlete they train.

Slovenian and Bosnian-Herzegovinian school and

the methods of fast turns teaching, the statistically

Inspection of the Hi square test values and the

significant differences in the choice of most

statistical significance indicators (Table 2) showed

important methodological exercises were not

no difference among experts, regarding the

determined.

nationality. In spite of structural difference that do

Table 2. Differences in the choice of most important methodological exercises for teaching fast skiing turns

Methodological

exercises of short skiing

CRO SLO BIH χ2

turn

OTFT

0.86

0.60

0.74

PTHFST

5.14

0.66

0.72

FSTSD

3.43

0.68

0.71

HOHFT

2.57

0.04

0.98

HOTFT

2.57

0.20

0.91

AIFT

3.43

0.04

0.98

ESPFT

2.57

0.10

0.95

SPBB

0.86

1.77

0.41

SSPAT

0.86

2.11

0.35

FTUSB

0.86

0.60

0.74

SBPUS

0.86

0.60

0.74

IFTSB

2.57

0.68

0.71

FTWJ

1.71

2.28

0.32

Legend:

Observed corrected frequency of Croatian experts (CRO), observed corrected frequency of Slovenian experts (SLO),

observed corrected frequency of Bosnian experts (BIH), non-parametric Hi - square test (χ2), and the corresponding empirical

level of significance (p)

Based on this, it can be claimed that the expert

Discussion

group that can be characterised as homogeneous,

disregarding the differences between skiing schools

they represent, formed the expert model of the most

Based on the acquaintance with the basic

important methodological exercises for fast turns

characteristics of motor learning, great practical and

training. By forming the expert model of

methodological knowledge while working with

methodological exercises for teaching fast turns, and

skiers of different skiing knowledge,

20 elite

by selecting the most important ones, we contribute

Croatian, Slovenian and Bosnian-Herzegovinian

to the better understanding of relations and defining

skiing experts first defined, and then evaluated the 5

basic methodological procedures in the alpine skiers

most important methodological exercises that

teaching process. The results obtained in this

facilitate the acquisition of fast turns technique.

research open up a possibility of conducting future

Based on the determined statistically significant

research that could define the characteristic errors

differences between the frequencies of expert

and the most efficient exercises for their correction,

evaluation of the most important methodological

in the process of fast turns acquisition. In addition, a

exercises in teaching fast turns, the model of

need for constructing measuring instruments

exercises that was distinguished by their importance

occured, instruments that could enable higher

and applicative value was identified. In spite of the

selection quality, and the choice of training modality

structural differences and specificities of skiing

and training exercises in the process of educating

schools that skiing experts represent, the differences

alpine skiers of different ages and levels of skiing

between them were not determined.

knowledge.

It can be concluded that the examinees formed a

homogeneous group in defining the dynamics and

fast turns teaching process. The values of this paper

EQOL Journal (2016) 8(2): 15-19

are the new and original research approach, which

Europapress holding i Ferbos inženjering.

secured crucial information on the systematic mode

Kuna, D. (2012). Formiranje ekspertnog modela likova

osnovne i napredne škole skijanja.

[In Croatian]

of acquiring specific skiing knowledge. The

Expert model of learning and valuation the most

information regarding the methodological laws on

important skiing skills of basic and advanced skiing

organising the fast ski turns process obtained

school. Proceedings Of The

3rd International

through experiments are extremely important for the

Conference Contemporary Kinesiology. Đ. Miletić et

kinesiological practice of alpine skiing. This

al. (Eds). Split : Faculty Of Kinesiology University Of

research opens the routs towards the future research

Split, Croatia. 145-153.

that could detect characteristic errors, exercises for

Kuna, D. (2013). Ekspertni model usvajanja skijaških

their correction and conduct empirical tests of the

znanja. [In Croatian] Expert model of gaining skiing

formed model on different samples of examinees.

skills

(Doctoral dissertation). Split: Faculty Of

Kinesiology University Of Split, Croatia.

Lešnik, B., & Žvan, M. (2010). A turn to move on -

Alpine skiing

- Slovenian way, Theory and

References

methodology of alpine skiing. SZS

- Združenje

učiteljev in trenerjev smučanja.

Feinberg, D. L. (2000). Ski faster. Camden, ME: Ragged

Murovec, S.

(2006). Na kanto: UPS

- učenje s

Mountain Press.

podaljševanjem smuči. [In Slovenian] The edge: OPS

Fry, J. (2006). The story of modern skiing. United States

- learning by extending the ski. Kranj: Format

of America. Published by University Press of New

Puškarić, D. (2010). Istina o skijanju. [In Croatian] The

England one Court Street Lebanon.

truth about skiing. Ogulin: Infostudio d.o.o.

Jurković, N., & Jurković, D.

(2005). Skiing: The

technique, methodology and training. Zagreb:

EQOL Journal (2016) 8(2): 21-24

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Physiological responses during arm and leg aerobic power tests in elite

female judokas

Tatjana Trivic¹✉• Cristina Casals² • Patrik Drid¹

Abstract

and AT, with statistically significant correlations in

The aim of this study was to compare physiological

the arm crank, and close to significance on the

responses during arm and leg aerobic power tests.

treadmill. On the other hand, arm crank and

treadmill tests presented different results concerning

Ten elite female judokas of the Serbian National

aerobic capacity. However, our female judokas

Team participated in the study. In addition to the

interestingly presented similar VO2max results

Special Judo Fitness Test (SJFT), maximal oxygen

during both aerobic tests, which highlights some

uptake

(VO2max) and anaerobic threshold

(AT)

judo-specific demands on the upper-body aerobic

were determined using an arm crank ergometer and

fitness.

a treadmill. Body fat percentage was estimated by

bio-impedance.

Keywords Arm crank

• Treadmill

• Anaerobic

The VO2max was only 3 ml∙kg-1∙min-1 higher

threshold

on the treadmill than in the arm crank (p<0.03), the

AT was also higher on the treadmill test (8.6 l∙min-

1, p=0.005). Nevertheless, the SJFT results were

Introduction

significantly correlated only with the maximal heart

rate during the treadmill test

(r=0.77, p<0.01 for

Judo has been characterized as a high-intensity

index; r=-0.73, p<0.02 for total throws). Body fat

intermittent combat sport, consisting of many

percentage was correlated with VO2max (r=-0.67,

different techniques and actions employed during a

p<0.05) and AT in the arm crank test

(r=-0.88,

match (Drid et al., 2012). High level of strength and

p=0.001).

coordination is needed to overcome the adversary

through rapid execution of technical maneuvers

The maximal oxygen uptake was not statistically

throughout the match (Drid et al., 2010). In addition

correlated with the SJFT results in elite female

to faster recovery process after high-intensity

judokas. However, judokas who had higher maximal

intermittent

activity

associated to

aerobic

heart rate during the treadmill test, showed a worse

performance

(Franchini et al.,

2011; Drid et al.,

judo-specific capacity on the SJFT. Female judokas

with higher body fat seem to have lower VO2max

2015), some evidence exists for higher values of

maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) in judokas

who are able to win points in the decisive moments

of bout. Furthermore, those judokas were able to re-

synthesis creatine-phosphate fasterin gastrocnemius

✉ ttrivic@yahoo.com

muscle compared to judokas who win points earlier

in the match and have better performance on

University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sport and

Wingate test for lower extremities (Gariod et al.,

Physical Education

1995).

Department of Physiology, Institute of Food

Nutrition and Technology, Biomedical Research

Drop in aerobic performance of lower extremities

Centre, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of

in judokas prior to main competition has been found

Granada, Granada, Spain

in study of Franchini, Cassio de Moreas Bertuzzi,

EQOL Journal (2016) 8(2): 21-24

Takito, & Kiss (2009), in addition to increase in

trial. The test was considered completed when the

aerobic performance of the upper body during the

oxygen uptake reached plateau and the respiratory

same period. Authors concluded that the

and ventilator quotients reached reference values.

performance of the upper body is more important

The gas analyzer was calibrated after five athletes

than performance for the lower part of the body, and

completed tests with gas mixture of known oxygen

consequently, the aerobic capacity of the upper body

and CO2 concentrations (20.9% O2, 0.03% CO2 and

was more relevant than the same test for lower body.

16.0% O2, 5.0% CO2, respectively).

Furthermore, Jagelo, Wolska, & Smulski

(2009)

Second VO2max was estimated by a method of

analyzed correlation between International Physical

extrapolation after a standardized sub maximal test

Fitness Test (IPFT) and Special Judo Fitness Test

on the arm cycle ergometer (Monark, Sweden) along

(SJFT) for three groups of female judokas. Highly

with telemetric monitoring of heart function (Polar,

skilled judokas were characterized by distinct and

Finland) after a five day period.

more diverse direct relationship between indicators

of general and specific physical preparation

Specific Judo Performance was assessed through

compared to judokas 13 - 15 and 16 - 18 year olds.

SJFT test. SJFT is divided into three active periods

Other research, conducted on Brazilian Olympic

(A=15 s; B and C=30 s) with 10 s rest intervals

judo team

(Franchini et al.,

2005) showed no

between them. During each period, athlete that is

significant differences in aerobic power between

being evaluated (tori) throws two partners (uke A

first team and reserves. On the other hand, Drid et

and uke B; separated from each other by a distance

al.,

2009 found significant differences between

of 6 m) as many times as possible using the one-arm

judokas of A and B Serbian national team.

shoulder throw

(ippon-seoi-nage) technique. All

participants (tori, uke A, and uke B) involved with

The aim of this study was to compare

the test should possess similar height and weight

physiological responses during arm and leg aerobic

characteristics. Immediately following, and one

power tests in elite female judokas and correlation

minute after completion of the three active periods,

between oxygen uptake and the special judo fitness

the tested subject’s heart rate is measured

test in female judokas.

(Sterkowicz, 1995). Afterwards, subsequent analysis

in the number of throws completed during the active

periods, along with heart rate response to the active

Method

periods, and an index calculation was conducted.

The SJFT Index was calculated as follows:

Subjects

Index = (Final HR + HR1 min) / Throws (1)

Ten elite female judokas of the Serbian National

Where: Final HR

= heart rate registered

Team participated in the study.

immediately after the test, HR1 min = heart rate

Procedures

obtained

1 minute after the test, and Throws

number of throws completed during the test.

Anthropometric Profile was assessed in all

participants through body mass (Model 3306 ABV;

Statistical Analyses

Avery Ltd., Crosswell, United Kingdom) and body

Data are expressed as mean ± standard deviation.

height

(Holtain Ltd., London, United Kingdom),

The Shapiro-Wilks statistic was used for checking

whereas body fat percentage was estimated through

the normality of distribution. The Pearson or

manual bioimpedance

(MaltronBioScan

920-2,

Spearman correlation tests were applied where

Edinburgh, United Kingdom).

appropriate. Comparisons between treadmill and

Aerobic Profile was estimated through treadmill

arm ergometry were performed using the Wilcoxon

and an arm crank ergometer test, with maximal

test. The data were analyzed using the statistical

oxygen uptake (VO2max) and anaerobic threshold

package SPSS, PC program, version 20.0 (IBM Inc.,

(AT) determined. For treadmill test, ventilatory and

USA).

metabolic indices were measured at rest for 1 minute

and then for another minute at a 5 km.h-1speed;

afterwards workload incremented progressively

Results

starting at 7 km.h-1at a rate of 0.5 km.h-1 every 30

seconds until exhaustion (CPET, COSMED, Rome,

Physical characteristics and the Special Judo fitness

Italy) with constant 2% inclination throughout the

test results are presented in table 1.

EQOL Journal (2016) 8(2): 21-24

Table 1. Physical characteristics and Special Judo Fitness Test

Body fat percentage was correlated with VO2max

results in elite female judokas

(r= -0.67, p<0.05) and AT in the arm crank test (r=

0.88, p=0.001).

Weight (kg)

64.89±11.19

Height (cm)

166.50±7.15

Body Fat (%)

22.92±5.34

Index

13.89±1.59

Total number of throws

25.70±1.63

SJFT

Final HR (bpm)

188.00±9.08

HR 1 min after (bpm)

166.80±15.31

Body Fat (%)

Comparison between results obtained on arm

crank and treadmill test are presented in Table 2.

Figure 3. Correlation between VO2_max and % of body fat

The VO2max was higher on the treadmill than in the

arm crank (p<0.03), the AnT was also higher on the

treadmill test (p=0.005).

Table 2. Heart rate (HR), oxygen uptake (VO2max) and

anaerobic threshold (AnT) in different ergometry tests

Arm crank Treadmill

HR max (bpm)*

183.00±8.79

188.10±6.42

Body Fat (%)

VO_2max (ml∙kg-1∙min-1)*

34.29±6.71

37.66±4.29

AnT (l∙min-1)*

25.30±3.35

33.88±4.17

Figure 4. Correlation between arm crank AnT and % of body

* means p<0.05

fat

The SJFT results were significantly correlated

only with the maximal heart rate during the treadmill

Discussion

test

(r=0.77, p

<0.01 for index, Fig

1; r=-0.73,

p<0.02 for total throws, Fig 2).

Higher values for all observed variables were

obtained on treadmill compared to arm crank,

205

suggesting a higher cardiovascular stress during

195

treadmill test. These results are understandable when

185

observing larger muscle groups involved in running

175

on treadmill compared to arm crank test involving

only upper body muscles.

ObtainedVO2max and AnT, on both arm crank

SJFT index

ergometer and treadmill, were not statistically

correlated with the SJFT results in elite female

Figure 1. Correlation between HR_max and SJFT index

judokas. This is not in line with previous researches

(Franchini et al., 2005; Franchini et al., 2007) that

205

showed correlations of the aerobic fitness and the

195

SJFT in male judokas. This could imply a need for

185

additional investigation for substantial conclusions.

175

According to the results of the present study,

VO2max and AnT results do not seems to represent

useful assessment tool in determining the specific

Total number of throws during the SJFT

performance of female judokas. Almansba et al.

Figure 2. Correlation between HR_max and SJFT total number of

(2010) obtained similar results in male judokas, and

throws

noted that VO2max is highly sensitive to changes in

training loads.

Body fat percentage was correlated with

VO2max and AT in the arm crank test (Fig 3-4).

EQOL Journal (2016) 8(2): 21-24

Female judokas who had higher maximal HR

References

during the treadmill test, showed a worse judo-

specific capacity on the SJFT, indicating a lower

Almansba, R., Stanislaw, S., Belkacem, R., Sterkowicz-

aerobic fitness. In addition, judokas with higher

Przybycien,

K.,

& Mahdad, D.

(2011).

body fat had significantly lower VO2max and AnT

Anthropometrical and physiological profiles of the

in the arm crank, and close to significance level on

Algerian Olympic judoists. Archives of Budo, 6, 185-

the treadmill (p=0.06, p=0.08, respectively). These

193.

results are in accordance with other study in male

Drid, P., Maksimović, R., Matić, R., Obradović, B.,

Milošević, Z., & Ostojić, S.M. (2009). Fitness profiles

judokas (Franchini et al., 2007) that showed lower

of elite female judokas of the Serbian national team.

performance in body displacement activities with

Med Sport, 62(3), 251-263.

judokas with higher body fat percent.

Drid, P, Bala, G, & Obadov, S. (2010). The differences in

motor and cognitive abilities between the more and

less successful 12-14 years old judokas. Arch Budo, 6,

Conclusion

95-100.

Drid, P., Trivić, T., & Tabakov, S. (2012). Special judo

fitness test-a review. Serbian Journal of Sports

Arm crank and treadmill tests presented different

Sciences, 6(4).

results in the anaerobic capacity of female judokas.

Drid, P., Casals, C., Mekic, A., Radjo, I., Stojanovic, M.,

In addition, the same judokas interestingly presented

& Ostojic, S.M. (2015). Fitness and anthropometric

similar VO2max results during both aerobic tests,

profiles of international vs. National judo medallists in

which highlights some judo-specific demands on the

half-heavyweight category. Journal of Strength and

upper-body aerobic fitness. However, VO2max and

Conditioning Research, 29(8), 2115-2121.

AnT do not seem to represent useful assessment tool

Franchini, E., Takito, MY., Kiss MAPDM et al. (2005).

in determining the specific performance of female

Physical fitness and anthropometrical differences

judokas. Higher values for all observed variables

between elite and non-elite judo players. Biol Sport,

were obtained on treadmill compared to arm crank,

22, 315-328.

Franchini, E., Nunes, AV., Morales JM., et al. (2007).

suggesting a higher cardiovascular stress during

Physical fitness and anthropometrical profile of the

treadmill test. These results are understandable when

Brazilian male judo team. J PhysiolAnthropol, 26, 59-

observing larger muscle groups involved in running

67.

on treadmill compared to arm crank test involving

Franchini, E., Cassio de Moreas Bertuzzi, R., Takito,

only upper body muscles.

M.Y., & Kiss, M. A. (2009). Effects of recovery type

after a judo match on blood lactate and performance in

specific and non-specific judo tasks. European

Acknowledgements

Journal of Applied Physiology, 107(4), 377-383.

Franchini, E., Vecchio, F.B., Matsushigue, K.A., &

Guilherme, A.G. (2011). Physiological profiles of elite

This work was supported by the Provincial

judo athletes. Sports Med, 41(2), 147-166.

Secretariat

for

Science and Technological

Gariod, L., Favre-Juvin, A., Novel, V., et al.

(1995).

Development

(grant number

114-451-1639/2016

Evaluation du profit energetique des judokas par

-01), and the Faculty of Sport and Physical

spectroscopie RMN du P31. Sci Sports, 10(4), 201-

Education, University of Novi Sad (2016 Annual

207.

Award).

Jagiello, W., Wolska, B., & Smulski, W. (2009). Physical

preparation of female judo competitors at selected

stages of long-standing sports training. Archives of

Budo, 5, 47-53.

Sterkowicz,

(1995).

Test

specjalnej

sprawnościruchowej w judo. Antropomotoryka,

12,

29-44. [in Polish]

EQOL Journal (2016) 8(2): 25-28

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Sources of stress as predictors of partner relationship quality

Zeljka Bojanic¹✉• Natasa Ninic¹

Abstract

and multiple and they are referred to as stressors.

The purpose of this survey is to establish whether,

They could be individual and concern the inner state

and in which manner, different sources of stress

of individuals and the way they experience different

predict the partner relationship quality, as well as to

changes in life, demands from their environment;

establish differences concerning the gender, age and

interpersonal, concerning different interpersonal

job of respondents. Sources of stress are defined as

relations; and organizational (incompatibility of the

individual, interpersonal and organizational, whereas

job contents, working hours, poor physical

the quality of partner relationship was tested as a

conditions in the work environment). At the present

degree of satisfaction with the romantic relationship.

time, stress has become an inevitable problem and,

The survey was conducted on an adequate sample of

in order to mitigate the effects of stress, we must

100 respondents involved in a partner relationship,

examine how and which aspects of a person’s life it

similar in terms of gender and aged

18 to

44.

affects. One of the significant aspects is having a

Questionnaires were used to measure the sources of

partner relationship. Zotovic (2002) emphasizes that

stress and partner relationship quality

(Hendrick,

stress is a threat to life, but also a threat to other

1988). The results indicated that all three sources of

persons that matter to us, to ourselves and the

stress were significantly connected with the partner

emotional relations we create. However, how partner

relationship quality, also that family-related sources

relationship is affected by stress circumstances

of stress were the only significant predictor (β= -

outside the relationship has been significantly less

0.286, p<0.01). The greater the family-related

studied. In this respect, the main issue arising from

sources of stress, the poorer the partnership relation

this survey concerns the question whether and in

quality. Differences were obtained in assessing the

which manner the stressors from different aspects of

individual factors of stress according to gender and

life predict and determine the satisfaction with and

age categories.

quality of the partner relationship?

Definition of Stress

Keywords Partner relationship quality • Sources of

stress • Gender • Age

There are a number of different definitions of stress,

with respect to its causes, characteristics, sources

and consequences, viewed from the perspective of

Introduction

different scientific disciplines. Authors Steinberger

and Cizmic (1991) consider these definitions and

indicate that stress reflects the pressures from the

Stress is a negative life experience accompanied by

environment, causing an emotional tension and

physiological, cognitive, emotional and behavioral

anxiety, while according to other authors, this

changes. The factors causing stress are numerous

emotional tension is the essence of stress, while

pressures from the environment are stressors, or

agents of stress. Any agent that disturbs the balance

of an organism, or its mental, physical and social

✉ zeljka.bojanic@gmail.com

integrity, may cause a stress. These agents are

referred to sources of stress, i.e. stressors (Kalicanin

Faculty of Legal and Business Studies “Dr Lazar

et al., 2011).

Vrkatic”, Novi Sad

EQOL Journal (2016) 8(2): 25-28

There are many sources of stress and they are

various stressors, with reference to age and gender

classified into several groups:

of the respondents.

1) Personal (types of personality, life changes,

demographic characteristics),

Method

2) Interpersonal

(different

interpersonal

conflicts),

3) Organisational

(incompatibility of the job

Sample

contents, working hours, poor physical

The survey sample is adequate, comprising

100

conditions in the work environment)

respondents, both male and female, above the age of

18, who were either married or in a relationship.

Partner relationship quality

Instruments

Partner relationship quality may be defined as an

The three groups of stress sources were measured by

objectively existing set of desirable characteristics,

the Stress Sources Questionnaire

(Interpersonal

such as the feeling of mutual love and respect, equal

Skills for Business, 2007).

division of responsibilities and duties, joint decision-

In assessing the degree of the partner relationship

making, agreeing on important issues in life. Close

quality, we used the Relationship Assessment Scale

partner relationship is a form in which most people

(Hendrick, 1988).

spend their lifetime. Therefore, it is very important

to understand the factors connected with the quality

of our partner relationship. Stress certainly is a

Results

significant factor, which is a threat to the partner

relationship on the one hand, while on the other

hand, the quality partner relationship may be

To respond to the main goal of this survey, Table 1

efficient in the reduction of stress.

presents the results of the Pearson Correlation of the

quality of romantic relationships in three groups of

Assessment of the high quality of intimate

stress sources. As noted, all three sources of stress are

relations makes a person feel protected and loved,

negatively and statistically significantly correlated with

emotionally and socially supported, which results in

the partner relationship quality. The relationship

perceiving the problems as less threatening (Batinic

quality shares the largest percentage of variation with

& Vukosavljevic-Gvozden, 2008).

the personal and family-related source of stress (r=-

For this reason, the main purpose of this survey is

0.286, p<0.01), then the individual (r=-0.241, p<0.05)

to analyze the nature of interconnection between the

and significantly less with the organizational source

three sources of stress, individual, interpersonal and

(r=-0.266, p<0.05). This indicates that the less present

organizational and satisfaction in a romantic

the stressors from all three groups, the better assessed

relationship, as well as to determine differences in

the partner relationship quality.

the quality of partner relationships and frequency of

Table 1. Results of the correlation analysis

Sources of stress

Dimension

Individual

Personal and family-related Organisational

-0.241

-0.286

-0.206

Partner relationship quality

0.016

0.004

0.040

100

A multiple regression analysis was conducted to

relationship quality was used as a criterion, while

establish that all three sources of stress provide an

three predictors were the three sources of stress. The

incremental contribution to predicting the partner

stepwise regression analysis method was used. The

relationship quality. The variable of partner

results were presented in Table 2 and Table 3.

Table 2. Multiple Correlation Coefficient and Determination Coefficient

Model

R²

Corrected R²

0.286

0.082

0.072

8.723

0.004

EQOL Journal (2016) 8(2): 25-28

Table 3. Standardized Beta Coefficient

Predictor

Personal and family-related sources

-0.286

2.953

0.004

Discussion

are the main agents of satisfaction with a romantic

relationship, because this relationship also belongs

to personal and family-related aspects of life.

The main issue in this survey was to examine the

nature of connection of stress, caused by different

Differences with regard to gender were obtained

agents outside a partner relationship and to assess its

only in cases of assessing the individual agents’

quality. It seems that surveys most often focus on

effects on stress, where women achieved

establishing the agents of satisfaction or

significantly higher score on the scale. These results

dissatisfaction with a romantic relationship that

could perhaps be explained by the fact that there are

concerned the agents alone, such as quarrels,

cultural differences in the role of men and women in

infidelity and so on. Consequently, two main goals

a society. Consequently, it seems to be more

were set in this survey.

acceptable that “women tend to be weaker” and the

main source of their own stress. In other words,

When it comes to the first goal, the results

women are more inclined to introspection, which

indicated that individual, personal and family-

makes them more vulnerable towards a wide range

related, as well as organizational sources of stress

of stressors. As far as the assessment of the partner

were significantly connected with the assessment of

relationship quality is concerned, no differences

quality of romantic relationships. In other words,

were obtained with reference to gender.

those who think they encounter a number of

stressors, regardless of their source, will be less

In assessing the individual sources of stress,

satisfied with their partner relationship. This may

differences were obtained with reference to age

indicate that, when an individual is under stress, this

groups as well. In fact, younger respondents

will reflect on different aspects of their life, and at

assessed that their traits were often the source of

that particular moment the origin of that stress is

stress, in a much greater extent than with the older

irrelevant. In this respect, for instance, negative

respondents. It is possible that it is so because of the

things experienced by an individual at work will be

higher emotional instability of young people, along

transferred to their private life, because the state of

with significant changes and challenges of their age,

stress, no matter what its source is, will reduce the

so they tend to reconsider things more, what makes

capacity and willingness of the individual to engage

them realize that they alone are the source of their

in a positive, efficient and functional partner

stress.

relationship.

Considering the fact that differences with

Nevertheless, the regression analysis indicated

reference to gender and age were obtained in

that the partner relationship quality is most closely

assessing the individual source of stress, it turned

connected with the personal and family-related

out that once the variability of these two grouping

source of stress and that individual and

variables is eliminated, the connection with the

organizational factors do not provide any novel

assessment of the partner relationship quality

explanation. This means that what is common to

disappears. This indicates that the connection

individual and organizational sources of stress and

probably exists only in a subsample of women and

the partner relationship quality is also common to

young people, if we monitor the connection

the assessment of personal and family-related

direction between the two variables, as well as the

stressors. It may be assumed that a certain

fact that these two categories have a higher score in

predisposition determines whether some individuals

the assessment of individual stressors’ effects. In

will simply perceive their environment as more

other words, it is possible that individual stressors

stressful

(Funder,

2016; Rauthman, Sherman, &

influence the quality of partner relationship,

Funder,

2015) or, when exposed to the intense

although to a greater extent among women and

effects of a concrete stressor, any situation will seem

young people.

to be stressful to them. In any case, it is reasonable

that stressors arising from personal and family life

EQOL Journal (2016) 8(2): 25-28

References

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Tesser, A., & Beach, S.R.H.

(1998). Life events,

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relationship quality, and depression: An investigation

Hershfield, H., Samanez-Larkin, G., Brooks, K., &

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Zotovic, M.

(2002). Stress and stress effects: of

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Aging, 26(1), 21-33.

Hendrick, S. S. (1988). A generic measure of relationship

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93-98.

EQOL Journal (2016) 8(2)

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EQOL Journal (2016) 8(2)

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EQOL Journal (2016) 8(2)

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